One of the best tools in the fight against climate change isn’t solar panels or electric cars, but the humble tree in your backyard. As a tree hugging environmentalist, I spend a lot of time thinking about how trees in their natural habitats can benefit people. It turns out that trees in cities are particularly good for people, even beyond their climate benefits. Urban forestry is worth the investment from equity, environmental, and economic perspectives—but everything has its price. We need to utilize the benefits of urban forestry and address their potential trade-offs, too. Here’s the ways that urban forestry helps us–and how we can improve it for everyone. 

How can urban forestry be useful? 

The benefits of trees in cities are seemingly endless. They absorb carbon dioxide, cool down neighborhoods, and give us clean air to breathe. Oh, and they can be really useful for environmental justice, too. 

1. Mitigating climate change. Human activities release greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, causing climate change. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is the only way to really stop climate change, but as politicians drag their feet on that, urban forestry is an important mitigation tool. Trees (and other green plants) absorb carbon dioxide, the most significant greenhouse gas, and store it securely in their trunks and leaves. Urban trees pull down 25.6 million tons of CO2 every year, a service worth $2 billion. 

2. Adapting to extreme heat. Planting trees makes neighborhoods cooler! Trees help to counteract the urban heat island effect–a phenomenon where cities become hotter than their surrounding natural areas, creating “islands” of heat centered around urban areas. Trees make neighborhoods cooler by providing shade and cooling the air. Water is soaked up by trees, travels through their trunks, and evaporates from their leaves. Just like sweat cools us off when it evaporates from our skin, trees cool the air when water evaporates from trees and the soil!

3. Benefiting local ecosystems. Trees provide habitat and food for local wildlife. In Los Angeles, for example, native street trees like coast live oak and sycamore are important for local birds.

Trees can also help to reduce stormwater runoff and prevent soil erosion. With their roots in the ground, trees hold dirt in place and allow rain to be absorbed instead of running off. These are key benefits to building resilience in urban ecosystems. 

4. Advancing environmental and climate justice. Tree canopy cover isn’t distributed equitably across neighborhoods–in fact, race and income strongly influence the amount of trees in a neighborhood. Historically redlined areas tend to have fewer trees, higher risk of extreme heat, and greater exposure to air pollution. Studies have shown that planting trees can also cut pollution in homes by half by absorbing small airborne particles.

Trees line a street in Beacon Hill, a wealthy and white neighborhood in Boston. Photo courtesy of Kimberley Zak (@KimZakPhoto on Instagram)

Urban forestry initiatives that target communities of color and low-income communities can advance environmental justice and equity in tree cover distribution. Planting trees where they are needed most can help to bridge the canopy cover gap between rich and poor, and white and POC communities.

Planting trees creates local economic opportunities too. Urban forestry jobs can employ local community members who might already be affected by environmental injustices. 

What are the trade-offs of tree planting? 

Like with most solutions, there are right and wrong ways to implement urban forestry. Improperly planted or managed urban forests can’t achieve the benefits listed above. In fact, they can create their own problems for people and the environment. 

1. Young trees can’t fight climate change. Urban trees don’t become “useful” until they are mature. Until they reach about 30 years old, urban trees are net carbon emitters. It’s only when trees reach maturity that they start to sequester meaningful levels of carbon. This means that no matter how many saplings we plant, we won’t see any climate benefits unless we can commit to taking care of them for the long run. 

2. Planting trees can harm local ecosystems. People tend to like non-native trees that are small, have short life spans, and have pretty flowers. These aren’t great for local environments, and they are less effective for carbon sequestration, too. Many of these trees are also non-native tree species, which can have serious impacts for local ecosystems if they escape beyond the city. 

Some trees require lots of water to grow. This means for dry areas like the Southwest US, tree planting might undermine water conservation efforts. Invasive or non-native species especially have resource requirements that aren’t suited for their introduced habitat. 

4. Green gentrification. Planting trees in low-income neighborhoods can raise property values with their aesthetic and environmental benefits. Creating sustainable infrastructure for climate resilience raises property values, but that means that existing residents might become priced out as rents increase. This is counterproductive to achieving environmental justice–what is the point of improving local communities if the people who need it most are forced out? 

How can we manage the drawbacks of urban forestry while maximizing benefits? 

The Arbor Day Foundation puts it nicely: it’s about planting the right tree in the right place. The downsides of urban forestry might be surprising, but we can take them as an opportunity to make planting trees environmentally just and beneficial. Local, community-based urban forestry can help to maximize the benefits of urban forestry for everyone.

1. Protect standing trees. The most important urban forestry measure for climate mitigation is protecting existing trees. On average, one tree is lost for every two that are gained–so protecting trees that we already have is critical.

2. Ensure long lives for new trees by getting communities involved. The next step, of course, is to plant new trees–and make sure they get old enough to store more carbon. Community programs that employ local youth to learn about and take care of young trees are essential for this step. For example, Boston-based Speak for the Trees runs an Urban Teen Tree Corps which gets young residents involved with urban forestry and community outreach.

Communities also need to give their input on where trees are planted and which trees are protected. By including community members upfront, urban forestry initiatives can reduce the likelihood of tree removal down the line. Informing the community members about the benefits of trees and different options can inform individual decisions about whether or not to plant or keep a tree. 

3. Protecting local ecosystems. The negative impacts to local ecosystems can be mitigated by choosing the best tree for the local habitat. For example, selecting native trees instead of invasive ones can help with environmental issues related to drought, soil health, and wildfires. 

A nearly failing D+ grade doesn’t bode well in any scenario. Unfortunately, that’s the grade the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) gave US infrastructure based on its physical condition and needed investments to bring the grade up to a B, or a state of good repair. 

Most Americans don’t remember a time before roads, running water, and electricity, nor think twice about the infrastructure that makes it all possible. That means infrastructure is working as it should, or so you may think. Even though you can’t always see it, infrastructure in the US is becoming increasingly vulnerable due to its severe underfunding and lack of maintenance. A strong and robust infrastructure network is a matter of your health and security, a booming economy, and environmental sustainability. Here’s what you need to know: 

What exactly is infrastructure?

Infrastructure is a catch-all term that encompasses more visible structure like roads, power lines, and water reservoirs. It also includes non-visible structures like broadband Internet access and structures not often considered as infrastructure, like airports, public parks, and even schools. Essentially, it’s anything that is intended for public use. 

Though this broad definition allows everyone to agree on its importance, the consensus is misleading. Presenting infrastructure as a monolith makes it harder for the less visible components to get the funding and attention they need. While infrastructure like roads and rails enjoy nearly unanimous support in its renewal, investing in equally vital yet less visible services like water and wastewater management shouldn’t be neglected. 

What does this have to do with the environment? 

It has everything to do with the environment. Infrastructure is the built environment; it’s all around you, provides you with resources you need for survival, and influences how you interact with the natural environment. 

However, because of its complexity and broad range of services, infrastructure has varying relationships with the environment.

Climate change makes some infrastructure more vulnerable. Likely in our lifetimes, rising sea levels will submerge low-lying coastal areas which will impact transit, energy, and water management amongst other complications. In November 2020, Tropical Storm Eta submerged roads in South Florida beneath nearly a foot and a half of rain. Roads are vital not just for travel but for emergency response. Rising sea levels also threaten nearly every naval and Air Force base on the East Coast, which will need to either be closed, relocated, or protected at great expense.

Aftermath of Tropical Storm Eta in South Florida, via Miami Herald

The built environment can also contaminate the natural resource it is supposed to provide. Many of the pipes that bring water to 90% of the population were built nearly a century ago, and are now reaching the end of their life cycles. This not only results in pipe breaks that cost money and water; these outdated pipes also pollute the drinking water with contaminants like lead, posing public health concerns.

This is an issue of environmental racism, as communities of color are more likely to face these infrastructure failures. 

Some infrastructure even exacerbates climate change. While structures like public transportation and renewable energy can help reduce our carbon footprint, infrastructure also includes crude oil pipelines that encourage the use of these fossil fuels. The longer we continue to invest in fossil fuel, the more difficult it will be to combat climate change. 

What’s being done about it?

Frustratingly, not enough.

Today, the federal government only funds 25% of public infrastructure, down from 38% in 1977 when the census first started tracking this data. This puts the burden on state and local governments to find ways to finance projects themselves. These projects are increasingly reliant on public-private partnerships where the government contracts a private firm to build a highway, for example. The private firm can set up toll gates to generate the funds necessary to maintain this structure.

Highway with private tolls, via US Department of Transportation

While this is an efficient way to finance projects, profit is prioritized over serving the public. Increased federal spending will help more equitable allocation of funding for projects because they can afford to spend in a deficit.

In terms of legislative activity, the US House of Representatives passed a $1.5 trillion infrastructure plan in July. It included funding for roads and bridges, water decontamination, and both public and commercial transit systems. The hope is that not only will these projects create jobs, but also boost the economy in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.

However, the bill likely will not see the light of day due to Republican representatives viewing it as too climate-focused and co-opted by the Democrats as a “partisan wishlist.” These tensions exist not just between the two parties, but also the federal and state governments in terms of implementing needed funding and planning of infrastructure. 

What is left to be done?

A lot. Right now the US can take advantage of low interest rates. This makes it favorable for local and state governments to borrow money and to spend on infrastructure projects. Additionally, with millions of people needing employment and the economy in shambles, investing in infrastructure will spur economic growth as well. 

In terms of planning, the very way these systems are being built need to be reconsidered. Infrastructure should serve the public rather than prioritize profit. The onus is also on planners and engineers to prioritize the social and environmental needs of people, not just the technical and financial considerations. 

Ultimately, the burden to be sustainable falls on everyone. Putting infrastructure higher on the to-do list is also going to require increased public awareness and pressure. Don’t you want a say in the structures that govern your everyday life? 

Done effectively, investing in infrastructure will generate social, economic, and environmental benefits. It’s a win-win-win situation, but we have to act now.

Humans have cleared forests for centuries. Deforestation is a key mechanism in the Western model of development, which centers  profit and capital above all else. While the term “deforestation” has drawn the concern of environmentalists in recent decades, many Indigenous people have long suffered from colonial deforestation. For many nations that experienced slavery and cash crop plantations, like Haiti and Puerto Rico, this was a grievous period. But community-led tree nurseries in Puerto Rico have contributed to immense reforestation success! Using Puerto Rico as a reference, I will guide you through questions of deforestation and conclude by addressing the prospects of reforestation.

I see trees everywhere…so what is the big fuss about deforestation?

Trees have an important role in our Earth community. Their root systems anchor soil, reducing the threat of soil erosion during storms.

They provide habitat and sources of food for wildlife. Soil-dwellers like worms and burrowing mammals live amongst and feed on the roots. Other insects frequent the trunk and can eat into the bark. Bees, bats, and birds find shelter amongst the canopies. They also produce fruits that people depend on, like mango and guava trees in Puerto Rico.  Imagine how many different species a single tree can support?

Trees must be protected at all life stages to sustain populations. By protecting trees, we protect numerous lifeforms and preserve the vital ecosystem functions of soil retention, oxygen production and carbon uptake.

What are the implications of deforestation on human health and well-being?

Trees’ positive impacts on human health extend beyond making the oxygen we breathe and storing carbon. They facilitate soil and water retention, which are instrumental to agricultural success.

Resulting food security unburdens people, enabling them to focus on other aspects of their lives — people can better feed themselves and profit from their crops to afford basic necessities. Farmers can utilize increased earnings to invest in their futures leading to educational advancements and economic growth. 

From their roots to their leaves, trees also have medicinal properties. In Puerto Rico, Rutaceae or “naranja” leaves are used to treat depression and Laminaceae or “menta” leaves are used to remedy sinus and gastric diseases.

How does Western “development” and capitalism play into deforestation? 

The Western notion of “development” is profit-seeking, viewing Earth’s resources as marketable goods or removable obstacles rather than key partners in our communities. This mentality has created impressive cities but has greatly driven global warming. Although you may see trees dispersed throughout the city, their numbers are only a fraction of what existed before development — misguided by colonization and industrialization — occurred.

In Puerto Rico, urban area development allowed rural nature to flourish, but if unchecked, those urban landscapes will continue to expand as people seek more space and property. Indigenous cultures have long held connections to and respect for Earth Beings such as mountains and rivers, as well as plants and animals. With global Westernization and industrialization, more people prioritize capitalistic gain over the well-being of the natural world.

But a reason many resource-rich countries have not sustainably achieved “ideal development” (ie. better quality of life, access to clean water, and higher education rates) is that international forces have always sought control. Outside forces exploit other countries’ natural resources, detracting funds from internal ideal development, to control their resources. Within 10 years after the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, they vamped up sugar production and forced Puerto Ricans into slavery-like conditions. American companies established their plantations in a dry region of the island, but sugar production requires a lot of water. They built dams that redirected water runoff from the mountains, but left behind erosion buildup that has been costly to mitigate.

How can we measure deforestation and reforestation over time?

In Puerto Rico, community members and reforestation organizations like Para la Naturaleza utilize nurseries before planting trees. Others track deforestation and reforestation by counting the number of trees present per acre and comparing totals across different years. 

ArcGIS is a geographic information system (GIS) used for mapping. Scientists upload data measurements to make publicly available GIS maps. By comparing maps over time, you can identify trends such as changing forest cover patterns.

Map of forest cover changes from 1980’s-2014 of Puerto Rico (Source: Yuan, 2017)

Is reforestation a plausible and successful solution?

Reforestation is imperative to the future of forests. In some nations like Haiti, local community members lead the reforestation movement with NGO support. Tree nurseries are the key. By closely tending to young trees, participants and leaders can ensure the seedling grows, then plant them over time. This sustainable process of community planting has proven successful.

Puerto Rico was once abundant with trees. It was a fully forested tropical forest with over 500 native tree species. By 1940, only 6% of forests remained after plantation agriculture. Between 1950 and 1990, migration to urban areas sparked agricultural abandonment. Over a 30-40 year period, “alien species” that could inhabit post-agricultural conditions — no longer suitable to native species — thrived.  By creating ideal conditions like shade from direct sunlight, alien species facilitated the re-establishment of native species. This led to the largest forest recovery event anywhere in the world. 

In the case of Puerto Rico, urbanization led to a natural course of reforestation. But, urbanization has its own downfalls. Therefore intentional and dedicated community tree planting provides hope that if we reduce global deforestation rates and shift to sustainable development, we can restore vital forests.

2020 has been horrible for most of us, and Pennsylvanians have found a new reason to add to the list. The spotted lanternfly, an invasive species from Asia, swarmed eastern Pennsylvania in a record-breaking infestation. Pennsylvanians, like me, have found it more than a little alarming to see hordes of this invasive planthopper in our own backyards. Pennsylvania Agriculture Secretary Russell Redding said, in a March press release, that the spotted lanternflies are “wreaking havoc for home and business owners; kids who just want to play outside; Pennsylvania agriculture and the economy of the state we all call home.” Want to know more about how you can be a part of the solutions to this pesky problem? Read on! 

How can I identify the spotted lanternfly?

Depending on the season, spotted lanternflies are found in a few different life stages. In the spring, young nymphs are quarter-inch black insects that are occasionally mistaken for ticks. Later in the lanternfly’s life cycle, they take on a red coloration, still with white spots and black lines throughout, and eventually molt to adults with working wings. As we approach the end of fall, the most common stages of the lanternflies that you will see are adults and egg masses. 

Adult lanternflies, which peak in population during the summer and fall months, are the largest and easiest to spot. Adults are about one inch in length and black, grey, and red in color with black spots covering their wings. 

The egg masses of lanternflies can be difficult to find because of their tan color and smooth mud-splash-esque exterior but are nevertheless important to search for. Lanternflies lay their eggs on virtually any hard, smooth surface, including on cars, cushions, bark, and more. Destroying these egg masses is one of the most simple ways to reduce their spread.

Spotted lanternfly life stages and sizes. Credit: Towamencin Township

How did the spotted lanternfly get here?

The spotted lanternfly, native to China, India, and Vietnam, is believed to have been introduced into the United States as egg masses on a shipment of stones in 2012. The first infestation of the lanternfly was found in 2014 in Berks County, Pennsylvania, just northwest of Philadelphia. The state made efforts to contain the lanternfly locally while there was still hope of preventing an outbreak. Unfortunately, they were unsuccessful. The lanternflies began to spread rapidly to other Pennsylvania counties and eventually to surrounding states. 

What is the environmental and economic impact of the spotted lanternfly?

The spotted lanternfly has devastated landowners and farmers in Pennsylvania, and its effects are only getting worse as it infests new counties.

Environmental Impact

When lanternflies feed on trees, stems, and vines, they excrete a substance called honeydew. While it sounds sweet, this sugary substance is a breeding ground for sooty mold, which can kill plants by blocking sunlight from reaching their leaves. While harmless to human health, sooty mold still causes issues for homeowners whose outdoor spaces can become overrun by dark, sticky substances. Talk about putting a damper on the family barbeque!

Economic Impact

In 2019, a report released by The Center for Rural Pennsylvania determined that these insects have the largest effect on the grape market and have the power to spoil up to 50% of grape crops in serious infestations. The study also estimated that spotted lanternfly infestations have cost PA $50.1 million annually and have eliminated nearly  484 jobs annually due to the reduction of agricultural and forestry output. These losses are a large part of why Pennsylvania and its surrounding states are so keen on controlling their lanternfly populations. 

Which states have the spotted lanternfly spread to?

There are spotted lanternfly infestations in Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Connecticut, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and Ohio. There have also been sightings of spotted lanternflies in North Carolina, Massachusetts, and New York. The largest and most severe infestation still remains in southeastern Pennsylvania.

Spotted lanternfly distributions from October 2020 with blue sections indicating infestations and purple dots representing sightings. Credit: New York State Integrated Pest Management  

 What are some regulations in place to control spotted lanternfly populations?

The first line of defense is a quarantine zone around the infested counties in Pennsylvania. A quarantine prohibits the movement of material that could harbor the lanternflies, like firewood, across the quarantine line (seen outlined in red on the map above). Commercial vehicles and personal drivers can apply for exemptions to move these items responsibly across the zones but must submit to thorough inspections.

There have been some other, more complicated control methods that scientists have been researching. One of those projects is introducing a predator species, the tiny Chinese wasp which would kill baby spotted lanternflies by laying eggs in them. However, adding an introduced species in response to invaders is risky. Research is being conducted on a small scale to determine the viability and safety of this project. Another strategy has been training scent detection dogs to sniff out spotted lanternfly egg masses in order to destroy them.

Photo: Rosie Emerson: The view of multiple spotted lanternflies outside my sixth-floor apartment window in Willow Grove, PA, this summer. 

What can we do to address spotted lanternflies?

The state has encouraged property owners to actively destroy egg masses on their property, using rubbing alcohol to ensure they don’t hatch unexpectedly. Although egg masses can be difficult to find, this practice has a distinct advantage over trying to capture and kill a flying adult lanternfly. 

In order for any of these efforts to be successful against the spread of spotted lanternflies, we will need to work together and remain vigilant, taking the extra time to stay informed and check our vehicles before exiting the quarantine zone. Agriculture Secretary Redding remarked that “We need to unite over our hatred for this pest for our common love: Pennsylvania.” 

Thank you so much for taking the first step to fighting this invasive insect. To find more information or to report sightings of spotted lanternflies, please visit the Penn State Extension website here. 

If you’re anything like me, your closet is full of bright colors and whimsy patterns. Or maybe you’re drawn to the classics, you can never go wrong with blacks and whites. But these colorful textiles come at a price. Bright yellows and reds are often produced by synthetic “azo” dyes,  nitrogen based synthetic compounds frequently used in food, pharmaceutical, leather, and of course, textiles. However, many of these dyes are carcinogenic and dangerous to the environment. 

How dangerous can a little color be? More than you might think. For years, the textile industry has been using azo dyes and pouring toxic waste into our oceans and lakes, contributing to 20% of the world’s industrial water pollution. 

How exactly are azo dyes harmful to our health?

Workers in dyeing factory. (source: CNN)

Everyday, we are exposed to azo dyes, whether it be through our colorful closets or the food we eat. Although azo dyes are inexpensive and create bright colors, these dyes can also trigger skin allergies, sores, gastrointestinal issues, and increase risks of cancer. These health hazards are not new discoveries. As early as 1895, studies showed that workers in dye manufacturing had higher rates of bladder cancer. More recently, a study in Brazil found azo dye pollution as a cause of cancer in a river serving as a common drinking source for around 60,000 people.

So how are Starbursts, and other colorful foods, safe to eat? They might not be. The FDA claims that the amount of azo in our foods and clothes are so low they don’t pose a threat to our health. On the other hand, the EU has banned many of these dyes due to their carcinogenic properties and have begun coloring their candies with natural pigments, such as carotene. 

To best understand how our seemingly innocuous wardrobe is the culprit of so many health and environmental issues, we will start at garment dyeing plants to understand how our clothes and colors are produced. 

What happens in dyeing mills?

Fabric dye factory in Hangzhou, China. (source: CNN)

Although most fashion consumption occurs in Western countries, like the US, most dyeing mills are located in developing countries, specifically in far-east Asia. Things haven’t always been this way. 

Since realizing the adverse effects of dye pollution, companies have relocated manufacturing from the US to developing countries with lax law enforcement and cheap labor. In Bangladesh, dye wastewater is dumped directly into nearby lakes, exposing these communities to health hazards and degrading the environment. 

The dyeing and finishing process is also especially water intensive.  Water is used in each step: preparation, dyeing, finishing, and rinse.

Preparation 

The fabric is first prepared by removing any impurities through a wash and additions of hydrogen peroxide, enzymes, or brightening agents.

Dye

There is no one-size fits all when it comes to the type of dye used for different textiles. However, the process often includes using synthetic ingredients, usually azo dyes. Popularized in the 1880s, azo dyes are vibrant dyes that color half of textiles globally because they are cheap and bright. However, azo dyes can be carcinogenic and endocrine disruptors, meaning they can result in cancer, birth defects, and other developmental disorders” These dyes also do not decompose and can accumulate in the bodies of water they are dumped in.

Finishing

During the finishing process, garments are chemically treated to improve fabric quality, undergoing treatments like permanent press, microbial/fungus protection, and softening. During this process, the fabrics are heated and steamed to retain this chemical application, and are rinsed thoroughly.

How are azo dyes harmful to the environment?

Man walks through dye-polluted rainwater in Shyampur, Bangladesh. (Source: CNN)

Once the dye process is finished, the hundreds of gallons of water used to rinse the garments are usually dumped into a nearby stream, despite being loaded with all the toxic chemicals during the process. The untreated discharge contributes to 80% of the total emissions produced by the textile industry. 

The World Bank has identified 72 toxic chemicals expelled in waterways as hazardous to public health. The rivers that run through Dhaka, Bangladesh are now a “pitch black color” and elicit toxic smells due to the pollution from nearby mills. .These chemicals build up in skin and increase risk to cancer and other ailments. In many developing countries, the same river water is used for crop irrigation and contaminates produce, further exposing people to these chemicals. Moreover, the mill workers often inhale, ingest, and are exposed to harsh chemicals, as there is inadequate protective clothing.

This discharge negatively affects lake ecosystem biodiversity and soil health because it increases temperature and pH levels. Dark dyes clock sunlight, inhibiting photosynthesis, and leading to a decrease in oxygen which affects all life in these lakes. The toxicity of the sludge is extremely harmful to aquatic animals, causing growth reduction, neurosensory damage, metabolic stress, and even death in fish.

What efforts are being taken to mitigate these harms?

In regards to the health and environmental hazards of azo dyes, many countries, such as those in the EU, have banned these carcinogenic substances. However, many dye manufacturing plants, commissioned by multinational retailers, are located in developing countries, like Bangladesh, where azo dyes are still permitted. This allows companies to use these cheap dyes and save on production costs, while compromising the health and environment of these communities.

Different organizations and manufacturers have begun to look at alternatives to dye processing and treatment, including using organic, plant-based dyes and materials that can benefit health and the environment. However, these are more time-intensive, expensive, and require even more water usage. The EPA also launched a coalition called “The Sustainable Apparel Coalition” that aims to investigate sustainable strategies for the garment industry in over 35 countries. Governments have also implemented stricter disposal regulations and are setting up water treatment plans. Despite new technologies and alternative dyes, there still needs a systematic change in the industry that focuses on less water consumption and pollution, while maintaining public and environmental health. 

While we wait for any increment of top-down change, we as consumers can leverage our dollar by investing in companies who have socially and environmentally conscious practices.